MINERALOGY

Study of naturally occurring crystalline substances (minerals)

Definition of Terms

 Crystal – a homogenous solid possessing long-range, three dimensional, internal

orders.
 Mineral – a naturally occurring homogenous solid, with definite chemical
composition and an ordered atomic arrangement. It is usually formed by inorganic
processes.
 Rock – is an aggregate of minerals. It can be composed of only one kind of
mineral (monomineralic) or of different kinds of minerals.
 Ore Minerals – those minerals from which one or more metals may be extracted
at a profit.
 Industrial Minerals – those minerals which are, themselves, used for one or
more industrial purposes such as in the manufacture of electrical and
thermal insulators, refractories, ceramics, glass, abrasives, fertilizers, fluxes,
cement, and other building materials.
 Gems – those minerals which have ornamental value, and which possess the
qualities of beauty, durability, rarity, fashionability and portability.

HISTORY OF MINERALOGY

Stone Age – the practice of mineralogical arts was started by early humans. They made
use of flint tools, as shown evidently by cave paintings. Red hematite and black
manganese oxides were used as pigments.

Bronze Age – other minerals were sought from which metals could be extracted.

327-287 BC – Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher had made the first written work on
minerals and to Pliny, who recorded 400 years later the mineralogical thought of his time

1556 – Publication of De Re Metallica by the German physician, Georgius Agricola

was made. Gives account on mining practices and first factual account of mineral. The
book was translated into English from the Latin in 1912 by former Pres. of the United
States, Herbert Hoover, and his wife, Lou Henry Hoover.

1669 – Contribution was made to crystallography by Nicholas Steno through his study of
the quartz crystal. He noted that despite their differences in origin, size, or habit, the
angles between corresponding faces are constant.

1780 – Carangeot invented a device called contact ganiometer for the measurement of
interfacial crystal angles
1783 – Rome de I’Lsle made an angular measurement on crystals confirming Steno’s
work. Law of the Consistency of Interfacial Angle was formulated

1784 – Rene J. Hauy showed that crystals were built by tiny identical building blocks,
which he called integral molecules.

1801 – Hauy developed the Theory of Rational Indences for Crystal Faces

19th Century – rapid advances were made

1809 – Wollaston invented the reflecting ganiometer which permitted highly accurate
or precise measurements of the positions of crystal faces

Between 1779-1848 – Berzelius, a Swedish chemist and his students studied the
chemistry of minerals and developed the principles of our present chemical classification
of minerals.

1815 – Cordier, a French naturalist initiated the immersion method which developed into
an important technique for the study of optical properties of mineral fragments. A mineral
Cordierite was named after him.

1828 – William Nicol, a Scotsman, invented a polarizing device that permitted the
systematic study of the behavior of light in crystalline substances. The device is known
today as the polarizing microscope.

Latter part of 19th Century – Federov, Schoenflies, and Barlov developed theories
for the internal symmetry and order within crystals which became the foundation of X-
ray crystallography.

1912 – Max Von Laue of the University of Munich suggested Friedrich and Knipping
to perform an experiment and demonstrate that crystals could diffract X-rays. X-ray
diffraction became a powerful method in the study of minerals.

1913 – W.H. Bragg and W.L. Bragg published the earliest crystal structure
determinations

1960 – Electron microprobe helped in the study of chemistry of minerals and is now
routinely used for the study of minerals, synthetic compounds, and glasses.

INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND MINERAL CRYSTAL

SYSTEMS
Steno’s Law – Constancy of Interfacial Angles

Nicholas Steno, a Danish physician and natural scientist, found that, by examination of
numerous specimens of the same mineral, when measured at the same temperature, the
angles between similar crystal faces remain constant regardless of the size or shape of the
crystal.

The Six Crystal Systems

1. Isometric – (cubic) the three crystallographic axes are all equal in length and
intersect at right angles (90o) to each other

c a=b=c;α=β=γ=90˚

a b

2. Tetragonal – Three axes, all at right angles, two of which are equal in length (a and b)
and one (c) which is different in length.

3. Orthorhombic – Three axes, all at right angles, and all three of different lengths.
C

4. Hexagonal – Four axes. Three of the axes fall in the same plane and intersect at the
axial cross at 120˚ between the positive ends. These three axes, labeled a1, a2, and a3 are
of the same length. The fourth axis, termed c, may be longer or shorter than the axes set.
 The c axis also passes through the intersection of the axes set at right angle to the plane
formed by the a set.
Rhombohedral a=b=c ; α=β=γ=90˚

5. Monoclinic – Three axes, all unequal in length, two of which (a and c) intersect at an
oblique angle (not 90°), the third axis (b) is perpendicular to the other two axes.
c
a
b
≠
b
≠
c
; a

γ
≠
α
=
6.β Triclinic – The three axes are all equal in length and intersect at three different angles
(=any angle but 90°).
9
a≠b≠c;
b
c 0 α≠β≠γ90˚
˚

a
 WHAT IS A MINERAL?

A Mineral is a naturally occurring, homogenous solid with a definite, but

generally not fixed chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement. It is
usually formed by inorganic processes.

 Naturally occurring
- formed by a natural process
- Synthetic products or those produced in the laboratory are not considered
Minerals
Example: synthetic ruby is not a mineral

 Homogenous solid
- consists of a single solid substance that cannot be physically subdivided into
simpler chemical compounds
- excludes gases and liquids

ex. Ice in glacier is a mineral but water is not; liquid mercury fall under mineraloids.
 Definite chemical composition
- means that atoms, or groups of atoms must occur in specific ratios. For ionic
crystals (i.e. most minerals) ratios of cations to anions will be constrained by charged
balance, however, atoms of similar charge and ionic radius may substitute freely for one
another, hence definite, but not fixed.

Not fixed. Ex. Dolomite Ca Mg (CO3)2 is not always pure. It may contain Fe and Mn in
place of Mg, therefore chemical formula becomes Ca (Mg,Fe,Mn)(CO3)2.

 Ordered atomic arrangement

- means crystalline, with three-dimensional periodic arrays of precise
geometric arrangement of atoms.

Example: both quartz and glass are composed of element Si silicon and O oxygen. The
former has a specific arrangement while the latter have random arrangement. Glass lacks
consistent atomic order and therefore considered as noncrystalline or amorphous.
Another example is graphite and diamond.(Polymorphs-same chem. comp. but have
different structures)

 Formed by inorganic process

- excludes the organically produced compounds
- ex. Calcium carbonate in shells, pearl, petroleum and coal
- inorganic means pertaining or relating to compound that contains no carbon.
 CRYSTAL HABITS AND AGGREGATES

1. Minerals in isolated or distinct crystals may be described as:

a) ACICULAR – slender, needlelike crystals
b) CAPILLARY and FILIFORM – hairlike or threadlike crystals
c) BLADED – Elongated crystals flattened like a knife blade

2. For groups of distinct crystals, the following terms are used:

a) DENDRITIC – Arborescent, in slender divergent branches,
somewhat plant-like
b) RETICULATED – Lattice-like groups of slender crystals
c) DIVERGENT or RADIATED – radiating crystal groups
d) DRUSY – A surface covered with a layer of small crystals

3. Parallel or radiating groups of individual crystals, are described as:

a.) COLUMNAR – Stout, columnlike individuals.
b.) BLADED - an aggregate of many flattened blades
c.) FIBROUS - aggregate of slender fibers, parallel or radiating.
d.) STELLATED – radiating individuals forming starlike or circular groups.
e.) GLOBULAR - radiating individuals forming spherical or hemispherical
groups.
f.) BOTROYOIDAL – globular forms resembling, as the word derived from
the Greek word implies, “bunch of grapes”.
g.) RENIFORM - radiating individuals terminating in round kidney-shaped
masses.
h.) MAMMILARY - large rounded masses resembling mammae, formed by
radiating individuals.
i.) COLLOFORM – spherical forms composed of radiating individuals
without regard to size, this includes botroyoidal, reniform and
mammillary.

4. A mineral aggregate composed of scales or lamellae is described as:

a.) FOLIATED – easily separable into plates or leaves
b.) MICACEOUS – similar to foliated, but splits onto exceedingly thin
sheets, as in micas.
c.) LAMMELAR or TABULAR – flat, platelike individuals
superimposed upon and adhering to each other.
d.) PLUMOSE – fine scales with divergent or featherlike structure.

5. A mineral aggregate composed of grains is called GRANULAR

6. Miscellaneous Terms
a. STALACTITIC – pendant cylinders or cones.
b. CONCENTRIC – more or less spherical layers superimposed upon onme
another about a common center.
c. PISOLITIC – rounded masses about size of peas.
 d. OOLITIC - small spheres resembling fish roe.
e. BANDED – mineral in narrow bandsof different color or texture.
f. MASSIVE – compact material without form or distinguishing features.
g. AMYGDALOIDAL – a term used to describe a vesicle in a volcanic rock
that is filled with secondary minerals
h. GEODE – rock cavity lined by a mineral mater but not wholly filled.
i. CONCRETIONS – masses formed by deposition of materials about a
nucleus.

DETERMINATIVE MINERALOGY/ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

A. Cleavage – ability of a mineral to break along a definite plane surface.
B. Parting - ability of a mineral to break along planes of structural weakness
C. Fracture – the way a mineral breaks when it does not yield along cleavage or
parting
1. Concoidal – smooth curved fracture resembling the surface of a shell
2. Hackly – jagged fractures with sharp edges
3. Fibrous or Splintery
4. Uneven or Irregular – with rough surface
D. Hardness – the resistance that the smooth surface of a mineral offers to
scratching

Moh’s Scale of Hardness

1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Flourite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond

E. Tenacity – the resistance that a mineral offers to breaking, crushing, bending or

tearing or its cohesiveness
1. Brittle – breaks or powders easily
2. Malleable – can be hammered onto thin sheets
3. Sectile – can be cut into thin shavings with a knife
4. Ductile – can be drawn into wire
5. Flexible – bends but does not resume its original shape when pressure is
applied
6. Elastic – bends and resumes its original shape upon release of pressure

F. Luster and Transparency – refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface

in reflected light. Transparency may either be opaque, translucent, or transparent.
 1. Metallic luster – the brilliant appearance of a mineral like a metal; opaque
to light
2. Non-metallic luster – light-colored and transmits light at least through
thin edges
A. Vitreous – like glass (e.g. Quartz)
B. Resinous – like the luster of a resin (e.g. Sphalerite)
C. Pearly – an iridescent pearl-like luster (e.g. Talc)
D. Greasy – appears as if covered with a thin layer of oil
E. Silky – silk-like (e.g. Serpentine)
F. Adamantine – a hard, brilliant luster like that of diamond (e.g. Pb-
minerals like Cerussite)

G. Color – results when white light strikes the surface of a mineral, one part of it is
reflected and the other refracted
H. Streak – the color of a finely powdered mineral; can be determined by rubbing
the mineral on unglazed porcelain or a streak plate
I. Specific Gravity – the relative density (G) is a number that expresses the ratio
between the weight of a substance and the weight of an equal volume of water at
4°C

J. Magnetism – ability of a mineral to be attracted to hand magnet

1. Ferromagnetic – those that are attracted to hand magnet
2. Paramagnetic – minerals that contain iron and ore attracted to hand
magnet
3. Diamagnetic – those that are repelled by a hand magnet

OTHER PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

A. Tarnish – is the color of the thin surface of film of material which forms as a
result of exposure to the atmosphere. i.e. Bornite has a bronze color on fresh
surfaces but a purple tarnish which can be seen on weathered surfaces
B. Play of Colors – the variation in color of a mineral when rotated or tilted at
different angles in height
1. Opalescence – results from the regular arrangement of inclusions in the
mineral
2. Irridescence – includes labradorescence; is usually due to the refraction
and/or reflection of light rays along cleavage, fractures, twin planes,
exsolution lamellae, etc. e.g. Labradorite
C. Chatoyancy – results from fibers or inclusions arranged in cavities
D. Asterism – diffraction of light from regularly arranged inclusions, usually in
tetragonal crystals
E. Luminescence – ambient emission of light by a mineral due to the prescence of
activators (impurities)
F. Phosphorescence – a type of fluorescence that persists even after the “energy” or
radiation source is removed
G. Diaphaneity – is the ability of a mineral to pass light through it
 Crystallography and Minerals Arranged by Crystal Form

 Crystal Groups and Classes - Crystallography groups are composed

of 32 classes of symmetry derived from observations of the external
crystal form.  From these 32 classes, 230 space groups are
distinguishable using x-ray analysis. 
 Example Crystal Morphology - To further illustrate these symmetry
elements, the example crystalline forms for each symmetry class were
constructed using Faces (version 3.7) The example crystals in each
group and class were constructed using the following parameters:
 Crystallographic axes: a=1, b=1, c=1.
 Forms: [214], [104], [024], [100], [010] (Color coded in all example
crystals).
This morphology was used in all the crystal groups and classes for drawing the examples and the
stereo images. The higher order forms were selected to best illustrate some of the subtle
differences in the symmetry classes.  Remember, most real crystals will probably not have similar
forms when compared to the examples.
Table Crystallography (Mason 68, p18) - The thirty-two crystal classes are summarized by
symmetry elements in the following table which is linked to: Example crystal images within the
crystallography group in the yellow columns. Stereo crystal images/java example and mineral
listings of each group and class in the green columns.
The Cubic (Isometric) System

Isometric Minerals Crystal Form Example

Class Unknown Mineral Listing
[214], [104], [024], [100], [010]

Isometric
Diploidal Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (2/m 3)

Isometric
Gyroidal Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (4 3 2)

Isometric
Hexoctahedral Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (4/m 3 2/m)

Isometric
Isometric Hextetrahedral Mineral Listing
Crystallographic H-M Symbol (4 3m)
Axes

Isometric
Tetartoidal Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (2 3)
The Tetragonal System

Tetragonal Mineral Crystal Form Example

Class Unknown Mineral Listing
[214], [104], [024], [100], [010]

Tetragonal Dipyramidal Mineral Listing

H-M Symbol (4/m)

Tetragonal Disphenoidal Mineral Listing

H-M Symbol (4)

Tetragonal Ditetragonal Dipyramidal Mineral Listing

H-M Symbol (4/m 2/m 2/m)

Tetragonal Pyramidal Mineral Listing

H-M Symbol (4)

Tetragonal Ditetragonal-pyramidal Mineral Listing

H-M Symbol (4mm)

Tetragonal Scalenohedral Mineral Listing

H-M Symbol (4 2m)
Tetragonal
Crystallographic
Axes
Tetragonal Trapezohedral Mineral
H-M Symbol (4 2 2)
The Orthorhombic System

Orthorhombic Minerals Crystal Form Example

Class Unknown Mineral Listing.
[214], [104], [024], [100], [010]

Orthorhombic
Dipyramidal Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (2/m 2/m 2/m)

Orthorhombic
Disphenoidal Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (2 2 2)

Orthorhobic Orthorhombic
Crystallographic
Pyramidal Mineral Listing
Axes
H-M Symbol (mm2)
The Hexagonal System
(Hexagonal Division)
Hexagonal Minerals Crystal Form
Example. Class Unknown Mineral Listing.
[214], [104], [024], [100], [010]

Hexagonal
Dihexagonal Dipyramidal Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (6/m 2/m 2/m)

Hexagonal Dihexagonal Pyramidal Mineral Listing

H-M Symbol (6mm)

Hexagonal
Dipyramidal Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (6/m)

Hexagonal
Ditrigonal Dipyramidal Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (6 m2)

Hexagonal Pyramidal Mineral Listing

H-M Symbol (6)

Hexagonal
Hexagonal Trapezohedral Mineral Listing
Crystallographic H-M Symbol (6 2 2)
Axes
Hexagonal
Trigonal Dipyramidal Mineral
H-M Symbol (6)
The Hexagonal System
(Trigonal Division)

Trigonal Minerals Crystal Form Example. Class Unknown Mineral Listing.

[214], [104], [024], [100], [010]

Trigonal
Ditrigonal Pyramidal Mineral Listing and Stereo image.
H-M Symbol (3m)

Trigonal
Hexagonal Scalenohedral Mineral Listing and Stereo
image.
H-M Symbol (3 2/m)

Trigonal Pyramidal Mineral Listing and Stereo image.

H-M Symbol (3)

Trigonal
Rhombohedral Mineral Listing and Stereo image.
H-M Symbol ( 3)
Trigonal
Crystallographic
Axes
Trigonal Trapezohedral Mineral Listing and Stereo
image.
H-M Symbol (3 2)
The Monoclinic System

Monoclinic Minerals Crystal Form

Example. Class Unknown Mineral Listing.
[214], [104], [024], [100], [010]

Monoclinic
Domatic Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (m)

Monoclinic
Prismatic Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (2/m)

Monoclinic
Crystallographic
Monoclinic
Axes
Sphenoidal Mineral Listing

H-M Symbol (2)
The Triclinic System

Triclinic Minerals Crystal Form Example. Class Unknown Mineral

[214], [104], [024], [100], [010] Listing.

Triclinic
Pedial Mineral Listing
H-M Symbol (1)

 
Triclinic
Crystallographic Triclinic
Axes Pinacoidal Mineral Listing
 H-M Symbol ( 1)
 Crystal Symmetries

 An object or pattern has symmetry if it is seemingly unchanged by an operation

such as rotation about an axis or reflection across a plane. If an object possesses
rotational symmetry, it will appear unmoved after rotation about a rotation axis.
For example, a hexagon looks unmoved after rotation of 60¡ about a
perpendicular axis through its center, and a cube appears unmoved after rotation
of 120¡ about an axis through a body diagonal. If a pattern possesses mirror
symmetry, its two halves, separated by an imaginary plane, appear to be mirror
images of one anotherÑfor example, the letter A. 

 Crystallographers demonstrated that only certain angles of rotational symmetry

are possible for crystals: 60¡, 90¡, 120¡, 180¡, and 360¡. The associated symmetry
elements they termed 6-fold, 4-fold, 3-fold, 2-fold, and 1-fold rotation axes,
respectively, based on the number of rotations required to equal 360¡. They
further demonstrated that, for crystals, the possible combinations of symmetry
operations involving rotation and reflection are limited. The combinations define
32 crystal classes, which are grouped into the 6 crystal systems: isometric,
hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic. Further
subdivision into the 230 space groups follows from the added consideration of
"translation"Ñthat is, repetition in space by shifting, as in the building of a pattern
by repeating a unit cell.

 Crystals with well-developed faces may show some of the internal symmetry of
the pattern. For example, crystals of beryl (BeOAlMSiRONT) commonly have 6
sides meeting at 120¡ interfacial angles, consistent with the 60¡ rotation axis of the
beryl crystal structure. For crystals without good external form, physical tests
involving light, electricity, force, sound, and so on can reveal some of their
internal symmetry. If a crystal possesses rotational symmetry, the physical
properties of the crystalÑsuch as the speed of sound or light within itÑwill be the
same along directions that can be rotated into one another by a rotation axis. For
example, simple optical tests using polarized light can help identify the crystal
system of transparent crystals, based on the symmetry of the refraction (bending)
of the light rays. Irregularly shaped crystals of galena (PbS) can be broken along 3
mutually perpendicular planes into tiny cubes, consistent with the isometric
symmetry of the galena structure.

 Knowledge of the space group symmetry and detailed structure of many crystals
has come from more complicated physical tests involving X rays. Photons of
electromagnetic radiationÑsuch as light or X raysÑare scattered by objects in
their path. If the objects are part of a periodic array or pattern, coherent
 General Forms and Special Forms

 A general form is a form in a particular crystal class that contains faces that
intersect all crystallographic axes at different lengths. It has the form symbol
{hkl}  All other forms that may be present are called special forms.  In the
monoclinic, triclinic, and orthorhombic crystal systems, the form {111} is a
general form because in these systems faces of this form will intersect the a, b,
and c axes at different lengths because the unit lengths are different on each
axis.  In crystals of higher symmetry, where two or more of the axes have
equal length, a general form must intersect the equal length axes at different
multiples of the unit length.  Thus in the tetragonal system the form {121} is a
general form.  In the isometric system a general form would have to be
something like {123}.

Open Forms and Closed Forms

 A closed form is a set of crystal faces that completely enclose space.  Thus, in
crystal classes that contain closed forms, a crystal can be made up of a single
form.
 An open form is one or more crystal faces that do not completely enclose
space. 

Example 1.  Pedions are single faced forms.  Since there is only one face in the form a
pedion cannot completely enclose space.  Thus, a crystal that has only pedions, must have
at least 3 different pedions to completely enclose space.

Example 2.  A prism is a 3 or more faced form wherein the crystal faces are all parallel to
the same line.  If the faces are all parallel then they cannot completely enclose space. 
Thus crystals that have prisms must also have at least one additional form in order to
completely enclose space.

Example 3.  A dipyramid has at least 6 faces that meet in points at opposite ends of the
crystal.  These faces can completely enclose space, so a dipyramid is closed form. 
Although a crystal may be made up of a single dipyramid form, it may also have other
forms present.

Pedions
 A pedion is an open, one faced form.  Pedions are the only forms that occur in the
Pedial class (1).  Since a pedion is not related to any other face by symmetry, each
form symbol refers to a single face.  For example the form {100} refers only to
the face (100), and is different from the form {00} which refers only to the face
(00). Note that while forms in the Pedial class are pedions, pedions may occur in
other crystal classes.
Pinacoids
 A Pinacoid is an open 2-faced form made up of two parallel faces. In the crystal
drawing shown here the form {111} is a pinacoid and consists of two faces, (111)
and ().  The form {100} is also a pinacoid consisting of the two faces (100) and
(00).  Similarly the form {010} is a pinacoid consisting of the two faces (010) and
(00), and the form {001} is a two faced form consisting of the faces (001) and
(00).  In this case, note that at least three of the above forms are necessary to
completely enclose space.  While all forms in the Pinacoid class are pinacoids,
pinacoids may occur in other crystal classes as well.

Domes
 Domes are 2- faced open forms where the 2 faces are related to one another by a
mirror plane.  In the crystal model shown here, the dark shaded faces belong to a
dome.  The vertical faces along the side of the model are pinacoids (2 parallel
faces).  The faces on the front and back of the model are not related to each other
by symmetry, and are thus two different pedions.

Sphenoids
 Sphenoids are2 - faced open forms where the faces are related to each other by a
2-fold rotation axis and are not parallel to each other.  The dark shaded triangular
faces on the model shown here belong  to a sphenoid.  Pairs of similar vertical
faces that cut the edges of the drawing are also pinacoids.  The top and bottom
faces, however, are two different pedions.
Prisms
 A prism is an open form consisting of three or more parallel faces.  Depending on
the symmetry, several different kinds of prisms are possible

Trigonal prism
 3 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 3 -fold rotation axis

Ditrigonal prism
 6 - faced form with all 6 faces parallel to a 3-fold rotation axis.  Note that the
cross section of this form (shown to the right of the drawing) is not a hexagon, i.e.
it does not have 6-fold rotational symmetry

Rhombic prism
 4 - faced form with all faces parallel to a line that is not a symmetry element.  In
the drawing to the right, the 4 shaded faces belong to a rhombic prism.  The other
faces in this model are pinacoids (the faces on the sides belong to a side pinacoid,
and the faces on the top and bottom belong to a top/bottom pinacoid).
Tetragonal prism
 4 - faced open form with all faces parallel to a 4-fold rotation axis or .  The 4 side
faces in this model make up the tetragonal prism.  The top and bottom faces make
up the a form called the top/bottom pinacoid.

Ditetragonal prism
 8 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 4-fold rotation axis.  In the drawing, the
8 vertical faces make up the ditetragonal prism.

Hexagonal prism
 6 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 6-fold rotation axis. The 6 vertical faces
in the drawing make up the hexagonal prism.  Again the faces on top and bottom
are the top/bottom pinacoid form
 Dihexagonal prism
 12 - faced form with all faces parallel to a 6-fold rotation axis. Note that a
horizontal cross-section of this model would have apparent 12-fold rotation
symmetry.  The dihexagonal prism is the result of mirror planes parallel to the 6-
fold rotation axis.

Pyramids
 A pyramid is a 3, 4, 6, 8 or 12  faced open form where all faces in the form meet,
or could meet if extended, at a point.

Trigonal pyramid
 3-faced form where all faces are related by a 3-fold rotation axis.

Ditrigonal pyramid
 6-faced form where all faces are related by a 3-fold rotation axis. Note that if
viewed from above, the ditrigonal pyramid would not have a hexagonal shape; its
cross section would look more like that of the trigonal prism discussed above
Rhombic pyramid
 4-faced form where the faces are related by mirror planes. In the drawing shown
here the faces labeled "p" are the four faces of the rhombic pyramid. If extend,
these 4 faces would meet at a point.

Tetragonal pyramid
 4-faced form where the faces are related by a 4 axis. In the drawing the small
triangular faces that cut the corners represent the tetragonal pyramid. Note that if
extended, these 4 faces would meet at a point.

Ditetragonal pyramid
 8-faced form where all faces are related by a 4 axis.  In the drawing shown here,
the upper 8 faces belong to the ditetragonal pyramid form.  Note that the vertical
faces belong to the ditetragonal prism.
 Hexagonal pyramid
 6-faced form where all faces are related by a 6 axis. If viewed from above, the
hexagonal pyramid would have a hexagonal shape.

Dihexagonal pyramid
 12-faced form where all faces are related by a 6-fold axis. This form results from
mirror planes that are parallel to the 6-fold axis.

Dipyramids
 Dipyramids are closed forms consisting of 6, 8, 12, 16, or 24 faces.  Dipyramids
are pyramids that are reflected across a mirror plane.  Thus, they occur in crystal
classes that have a mirror plane perpendicular to a rotation or rotoinversion axis.

Trigonal dipyramid
 6-faced form with faces related by a 3-fold axis with a perpendicular mirror plane.
In this drawing, all six faces belong to the trigonal-dipyramid
Ditrigonal -dipyramid
 12-faced form with faces related by a 3-fold axis with a perpendicular mirror
plane. If viewed from above, the crystal will not have a hexagonal shape, rather it
would appear similar to the horizontal cross-section of the ditrigonal prism,
discussed above.

Rhombic dipyramid
 8-faced form with faces related by a combinations of 2-fold axes and mirror
planes.  The drawing to the right shows 2 rhombic dipyramids.  One has the form
symbol {111} and consists of the four larger faces shown plus four equivalent
faces on the back of the model.  The other one has the form symbol {113} and
consists of the 4 smaller faces shown plus the four on the back.

Tetragonal dipyramid
 8-faced form with faces related by a 4-fold axis with a perpendicular mirror
plane.  The drawing shows the 8-faced tetragonal dipyramid.  Also shown is the
4-faced tetragonal prism, and the 2-faced top/bottom pinacoid.
Ditetragonal dipyramid
 16-faced form with faces related by a 4-fold axis with a perpendicular mirror
plane. The ditetragonal dipyramid is shown here.  Note the vertical faces belong
to a ditetragonal prism.

Hexagonal dipyramid
 12-faced form with faces related by a 6-fold axis with a perpendicular mirror
plane.  The vertical faces in this model make up a hexagonal prism.

Dihexagonal dipyramid
 24-faced form with faces related by a 6-fold axis with a perpendicular mirror
plane.
Trapezohedrons
 Trapezohedron are closed 6, 8, or 12 faced forms, with 3, 4, or 6 upper faces
offset from 3, 4, or 6 lower faces.  The trapezohedron results from 3-, 4-, or 6-fold
axes combined with a perpendicular 2-fold axis. 

Scalenohedrons
 A scalenohedron is a closed form with 8 or 12 faces.  In ideally developed faces
each of the faces is a scalene triangle.  In the model, note the presence of the 3-
fold rotoinversion axis perpendicular to the 3 2-fold axes.

Rhombohedrons
 A rhombohedron is 6-faced closed form wherein 3 faces on top are offset by 3
identical upside down faces on the bottom, as a result of a 3-fold rotoinversion
axis.  Rhombohedrons can also result from a 3-fold axis with perpendicular 2-fold
axes.  Rhombohedrons only occur in the crystal classes 2/m , 32, and .
Disphenoids
 A disphenoid is a closed form consisting of 4 faces.  These are only present in the
orthorhombic system (class 222) and the tetragonal system (class )

Hexahedron
 A hexahedron is the same as a cube.  3-fold axes are perpendicular to the face of
the cube, and four axes run through the corners of the cube. Note that the form
symbol for a hexahedron is {100}, and it consists of the following 6 faces:  (100),
(010), (001), (00), (00), and (00).

Octahedron
 An octahedron is an 8 faced form that results form three 4-fold axes with
perpendicular mirror planes.  The octahedron has the form symbol {111}and
consists of the following 8 faces: (111),  (), (11), (1), (1), (1), (11), and (11).  Note
that four 3-fold axes are present that are perpendicular to the triangular faces of
the octahedron (these 3-fold axes are not shown in the drawing).
Dodecahedron
 A dodecahedron is a closed 12-faced form.  Dodecahedrons can be formed by
cutting off the edges of a cube.  The form symbol for a dodecahedron is {110}. 
As an exercise, you figure out the Miller Indices for these 12 faces.

Tetrahexahedron
 The tetrahexahedron is a 24-faced form with a general form symbol of {0hl} This
means that all faces are parallel to one of the a axes, and intersect the other 2 axes
at different lengths.

Trapezohedron
 An isometric trapezohedron is a 12-faced closed form with the general form
symbol {hhl}.  This means that all faces intersect two of the a axes at equal length
and intersect the third a axis at a different length.
Tetrahedron
 The tetrahedron occurs in the class 3m and has the form symbol {111}(the form
shown in the drawing) or {11} (2 different forms are possible).  It is a four faced
form that results form three axes and four 3-fold axes (not shown in the drawing).

Gyroid
 A gyroid is a form in the class 432 (note no mirror planes)

Pyritohedron
 The pyritohedron is a 12-faced form that occurs in the crystal class 2/m.  Note that
there are no 4-fold axes in this class.  The possible forms are {h0l} or {0kl} and
each of the faces that make up the form have 5 sides.
Diploid
 The diploid is the general form {hkl} for the diploidal class (2/m).  Again there
are no 4-fold axes.

Tetartoid
 Tetartoids are general forms in the tetartoidal class (23) which only has 3-fold
axes and 2-fold axes with no mirror planes. 

Vectorial Properties of Crystals

Continuous Vectorial Properties

- Continuous vectorial properties depend on direction, but along any given the
direction the property is the same.  Some of the continuous vectorial properties
are:

 Hardness - In some minerals there is a difference in hardness in different

directions in the crystal. Examples: Kyanite, Biotite, Muscovite.  This can become
an important identifying property and/or may lead to confusion about the hardness
if one is not aware of the directional dependence.

 Velocity of Light (Refractive Index) - For all minerals except those in the
isometric system, the velocity of light is different as the light travels along
 different directions in the crystal.  We will use this directional dependence of light
velocity as an important tool in the second half of the course.  Refractive Index is
defined as the velocity of light in a material divided by the velocity of light in a
vacuum.  Because the velocity of light depends on direction, the refractive index
will also depend on direction.

 Thermal Conductivity - The ability of a material to conduct heat is called

thermal conductivity.  Like light, heat can be conducted at different rates along
different directions in crystals.

 Electrical Conductivity-  The ability of a material to allow the passage of

electrons is called electrical conductivity, which is also directionally dependent
except in isometric crystals.

 Thermal Expansion - How much the crystal lattice expands as it is heated is

referred to as thermal expansion.  Some crystals expand more in one direction
than in others, thus thermal expansion is a vectorial property.

 Compressibility - Compressibility is a measure of how the lattice is reduced as

atoms are pushed closer together under pressure.  Some directions in crystals may
be more compressible than others.

Discontinuous Vectorial Properties

- Discontinuous vectorial properties pertain only to certain directions or planes
within a crystal.  For these kinds of properties, intermediate directions may have
no value of the property.  Among the discontinuous vectorial properties are:

 Cleavage -  Cleavage is defined as a plane within the lattice along which

breakage occurs more easily than along other directions.   A cleavage direction
develops along zones of weakness in the crystal lattice.  Cleavage is
discontinuous because it only occurs along certain planes.

 Growth Rate - Growth rate is defined as the rate at which atoms can be added to
the crystal. In some directions fewer atoms must be added to the crystal than in
other directions, and thus some directions may allow for faster growth than
others. 

 Solution Rate - Solution rate is the rate at which a solid can be dissolved in a
solvent.  In this case it depends on how tightly bonded the atoms are in the crystal
structure, and this usually depends on direction.

Crystal Habit

 In nature perfect crystals are rare.  The faces that develop on a crystal depend
on the space available for the crystals to grow.  If crystals grow into one
another or in a restricted environment, it is possible that no well-formed
 crystal faces will be developed.  However, crystals sometimes develop certain
forms more commonly than others, although the symmetry may not be readily
apparent from these common forms.  The term used to describe general shape
of a crystal is habit.

 Some common crystal habits are as follows.

Cubic - cube shapes
Octahedral - shaped like octahedrons, as described above.
Tabular -  rectangular shapes.
Equant - a term used to describe minerals that have all of their boundaries of
approximately equal length.

The Inosilicate

 This subclass contains two distinct groups: the single chain and double chain
silicates. In the single chain group the tetrahedrons share two oxygens with two
other tetrahedrons and form a seemingly endless chain. The ratio of silicon to
oxygen is thus 1:3. The tetrahedrons alternate to the left and then to the right
along the line formed by the linked oxygens although more complex chains seem
to spiral. In cross section the chain forms a trapezium and this shape produces the
angles between the crystal faces and cleavage directions.

 In the double chain group, two single chains lie side by side so that all the right
sided tetrahedrons of the left chain are linked by an oxygen to the left sided
tetrahedrons of the right chain. The extra shared oxygen for every four silicons
reduces the ratio of silicons to oxygen to 4:11. The double chain looks like a chain
of six sided rings that might remind someone of a child's clover chain. The cross
section is similar in the double chains to that of the single chains except the
trapezium are longer in the double chains. This difference produces a difference
in angles. The cleavage of the two groups results between chains and does not
break the chains thus producing prismatic cleavage. In the single chained silicates
the two directions of cleavage are at nearly right angles (close to 90 degrees)
forming nearly square cross sections. In the double chain silicates the cleavage
angle is close to 120 and 60 degrees forming rhombic cross sections making a
convenient way to distinguish double chain silicates from single chain silicates.

Single Chain Inosilicates

THE MINERAL LORENZENITE

 Chemistry: Na2Ti2Si2O9, Sodium Titanium Silicate.

 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Inosilicates
 Uses: mineral specimens
 Specimens
 Lorenzenite is a rare mineral that was only discribed in the last 50 years. It is
found on both the coast of Greenland and on the Kola Pennisula from where many
new and rare minerals have been and are still being discovered. Ramsayite is the
old russian name for lorezenite. Now the name Ramsayite is a synonym for
lorenzenite. Lorenzenite has a rather high luster which is due to the titanium
content. Other titanium minerals also have high lusters especially the mineral
rutile, TiO2.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is a brown, yellow-brown to dark brown.
 Luster is vitreous to submetallic.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is Orthorhombic.
 Crystal Habit is prismatic with six sides, two of the sides are often flattened to
form a nearly tabular crystal with a pointed termination.
 Hardness is 6.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 3.4+ (above average for translucent minerals)
 Streak is light brown.
 Notable Occurrences: Narsarsuk, Greenland and Kola Pennisula, Russia.
 Best Field Indicators are color, luster, density and locallity.

The Mineral NEPTUNITE

 Chemistry: KNa2Li(Fe, Mn)2Ti2Si8O24, Potasium Sodium Lithium Iron

Manganese Titanium Silicate
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Inosilicates
 Uses: mineral specimens.
 Specimens
 Neptunite was only discovered during this century and is of rare occurence. Its
most famous specimens come from the wonderful deposits at San Benito County
in California. This site contains natrolite veins in a serpentinite rock. Embedded in
the pure white natrolite are the sapphire blue benitoite and the black prismatic
crystals of neptunite. The assemblage is a classic among collectors and specimens
with all three minerals are much sought after. Neptunite is named after the Roman
god of the sea, Neptune. Crystals are well formed and typically show multiple
secondary faces. The flashes of red that appear to come right from the center of
the crystal are a nice added touch to this rare and interesting mineral.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is black to reddish black.
 Luster is vitreous.
 Transparency crystals are translucent to opaque.
 Crystal System is monoclinic; 2/m
 Crystal Habits include prismatic, elongated crystals with nearly square cross-
sections. The terminations are modified and slanted dome faces. Also found
massive and in disseminated grains.
 Cleavage is perfect in two direction at 80 and 100 degree angles.
 Fracture is splintery.
 Hardness is 5.5
 Specific Gravity is approximately 3.23 (slightly above average)
 Streak is reddish-brown.
 Associated Minerals are benitoite, natrolite, serpentine, aegerine and
joaquinite.
 Other Characteristics: an internal red reflection can sometimes be seen through
the prismatic crystal faces.
 Notable Occurrences include the famous San Benito Co., California site as well
as Narsarssuk Greenland and the Kola penninsula, Russia.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, internal reflection, streak, associations,
color, and cleavage

Double Chain Inosilicates

 The amphibole minerals are inosilicates of the general formula XY2Z5(Si, Al,
Ti)8O22(OH, F)2. The X represents large ions such as sodium or potassium and
this site can be left vacant. The Y can be populated by sodium, calcium, iron (+2),
lithium, manganese (+2), aluminum and/or magnesium and more rarely zinc,
nickel, or cobalt. The Z can be filled by ions such as Iron (+3), manganese (+3),
chromium (+3), aluminum, titanium (+4), iron (+2), lithium and manganese (+2).
Most amphiboles are monoclinic, 2/m; but members of the Anthophyllite
Subgroup are orthorhombic, 2/m 2/m 2/m. The rather complex possibilities of
formulas does lead to a lot of variety in the amphibole group. Compare the
formulas of these common amphiboles:

THE MINERAL HORNBLENDE

 Chemistry: Ca2(Mg, Fe, Al)5 (Al, Si)8O22(OH)2, Calcium Magnesium Iron

Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide.
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Inosilicates
 Group: Amphibole
 Uses: Only as mineral specimens
 Specimens
 Hornblende is actually the name given to a series of minerals that are rather
difficult to distinguish by ordinary means. The iron, magnesium and aluminum
ions can freely substitute for each other and form what have been distinguished as
seperate minerals. The minerals are given the names Magnesio-hornblende,
Ferrohornblende, Alumino-ferro-hornblende and Alumino-magnesio-hornblende.
 These minerals are obviously named for their chemistries although there is little to
distinguish them in the field. The iron rich members of the series are more darker
black and less likely to be translucent.

 Hornblende is not often a collection mineral because good crystals are somewhat
difficult to find even though the mineral is widespread. It is almost always opaque
and black and not very attractive. However a few specimens are extraordinary and
make for valuable specimens. Some crystals can grow to a fairly large size of
several feet long and nearly a foot across. Other specimens of hornblende can be
acicular clusters or needle thin crystal aggregates. Many times a specimen of a
more valuable mineral will be accented by the opaque black crystals of
hornblende.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is almost always black to dark green.
 Luster is vitreous to dull.
 Transparency: Crystals are generally opaque but thin crystals or exceptional
specimens can be translucent.
 Crystal System is Monoclinic; 2/m
 Crystal Habits include short stocky prismatic crystals as well as long thin crystal
forms. Crystals can have a hexagonal cross-section although rarely symmetrical.
The typical termination, if seen, appears as the two faces of a dome but is actually
two of the four faces of a prism. Also found granular, massive and occassionally
acicular aggregates.
 Cleavage is imperfect in two directions at 56 and 124 degrees.
 Fracture is uneven.
 Hardness is 5 - 6.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 2.9 - 3.4 (somewhat above average for
translucent minerals)
 Streak is brown to gray.
 Other Characteristics: pleochroic in translucent speciments. Large crystals have
an almost striated or grainy appearance.
 Associated Minerals are quartz, feldspars, augite, magnetite, micas and many
medium grade metamorphic minerals.
 Notable Occurrences are numerous and include Bancroft, Ontario; Norway;
Bohemia; Mt. Vesuvius, Italy and New York, USA.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit (especially cross-section), color and
cleavage.

THE MINERAL TREMOLITE

 Chemistry: Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2 , Calcium Magnesium Silicate Hydroxide.

 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Inosilicates
 Group: Amphibole
 Uses: Asbestos and as a mineral specimen.
 Specimens
 Tremolite is a relatively common mineral in some metamorphic rocks. It occurs
from the conversion of dolomite, silica and water into tremolite, calcite and
carbon dioxide by way of the following formula:

5CaMg(CO3)2 + 8SiO2 + H2O ------> Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2 + 3CaCO3 + 7CO2

 It belongs to a series with the minerals actinolite and ferro-actinolite. A series

occurs when two or more ions can freely substitute between each other. In this
case, when iron is predominant the mineral is ferro-actinolite and when
magnesium is predominant the mineral is tremolite. Actinolite is the intermediate
member and the most common followed by tremolite. Tremolite's formula is often
written as the same as actinolite (with iron and magnesium), but specimens of
tremolite can be found quite pure (that is, free of iron) and so here the formula
reflects the pure end of the series. The entire series can be represented with the
actinolite formula: Ca2(Mg, Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2.

 Without the iron in the formula tremolite will have the typical creamy white color.
With just a small amount of iron tremolite will be green. Increasing iron content
will raise the specific gravity, index of refraction and darken the color.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is usually white or gray but can be greenish, colorless, yellow and violet.
 Luster is vitreous or silky to dull.
 Transparency: Specimens are translucent to transparent.
 Crystal System is monoclinic; 2/m
 Crystal Habits include flattened prismatic and elongated crystals with a dome-
like termination that is actually two of the four faces of a prism. Fibrous crystals
form radial aggregates, masses and hair like clusters. Also as a felted mass
(asbestos and "mountain leather").
 Cleavage: is perfect in two directions at close to 60- and 120-degree angles
(diamond-shaped).
 Fracture is uneven.
 Hardness is 5 - 6.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 2.9 - 3.1 (very slightly above average for
translucent minerals).
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: Index of refraction is 1.60 - 1.63.
 Associated Minerals are calcite, grossular, talc and serpentine.
 THE MINERAL FLUORRICHTERITE

 Chemistry: Na2Ca(Mg, Fe)5Si8O22(OH, F)2, Sodium Calcium Magnesium

Iron Silicate Hydroxide Fluoride.
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Inosilicates
 Group: Amphibole
 Uses: Only as mineral specimens.
 Specimens
 Fluorrichterite is a rare mineral, known from only one location. It is found near
Wilberforce, Ontario in a skarn formation. The skarn is a term for a rock that is
the product of a chemically unusual magma body that has intruded into and
recrystallized a "dirty" limestone. The "dirty" limestone is not composed of just
calcite, CaCO3, like "clean" limestone but is mixed with silicates and/or
phosphates, etc. This mixing of the hot chemically unusual liquids and volatiles of
the magma with the different minerals of the "dirty" limestones produces some
interesting and rare minerals after all the recrystallizing is done. One of these is of
course, fluorrichterite.

 Fluorrichterite forms well shaped crystals that can have a pearly luster. Its luster is
higher than most members of the amphibole group possibly because of the
unusual presence of fluorine which comes from the unusual magma chemistry.
Mixed with fluorrichterite in the white recrystallized calcite of the skarn are well
formed crystals of biotite making specimens extra special.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is dark green to blue green or less commonly brown, gray and black.
 Luster is vitreous to pearly to dull.
 Transparency: Crystals are generally translucent to opaque.
 Crystal System is Monoclinic; 2/m
 Crystal Habits include prismatic crystals with an overall nearly diamond shaped
cross-section with the four points usually cut by minor prism faces. Due to
dissolution reactions after initial crystallization, the crystal faces can appear pitted
and the terminations can be rounded. Twinning is commonly seen and results in a
groove or notch running down the "spine" of the prismatic crystals.
 Cleavage is imperfect in two directions at nearly 60 and 120 degrees.
 Fracture is uneven.
 Hardness is 6.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 3 (average for translucent minerals)
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: Crystals can have a iridescent shimer and associated
minerals can be seen intergrown in some of the crystals filling pits and voids on
their surface.
 Associated Minerals are biotite, molybdenite, cancrinite and calcite
 Notable Occurrence is several sites near Wilberforce, Ontario, Canada.

Nesosilicate (single tetrahedrons)

 The simplest of all the silicate subclasses, this subclass includes all silicates where
the (SiO4) tetrahedrons are unbonded to other tetrahedrons. In this respect they
are similar to other mineral classes such as the sulfates and phosphates. These
other classes also have tetrahedral basic ionic units (PO4 & SO4) and thus there
are several groups and minerals within them that are similar to the members of the
nesosilicates. Nesosilicates, which are sometimes referred to as orthosilicates,
have a structure that produces stronger bonds and a closer packing of ions and
therefore a higher density, index of refraction and hardness than chemically
similar silicates in other subclasses. Consequently, There are more gemstones in
the nesosilicates than in any other silicate subclass. Below are the more common
members of the nesosilicates. See the nesosilicates' page for a more complete list.

THE MINERAL OLIVINE

 Chemistry: (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, Magnesium Iron Silicate.

 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Nesosilicates
 Group: Olivine
 Uses: As gemstones, industrial uses as refractory sands and abrasives, an ore
of magnesium and as mineral specimens.
 Specimens
 Also see variety specimens:
-Peridot Specimens
 Olivine is actually a name for a series between two end members, fayalite and
forsterite. Fayalite is the iron rich member with a pure formula of Fe2SiO4.
Forsterite is the magnesium rich member with a pure formula of Mg2SiO4. The
two minerals form a series where the iron and magnesium are substituted for each
other without much effect on the crystal structure. Fayalite due to its iron content
has a higher index of refraction, is heavier and has a darker color than forsterite.
Otherwise they are difficult to distinguish and virtually all specimens of the two
minerals contain both iron and magnesium. For simplicity sake and general public
recognition, they are often treated as one mineral, olivine. Olivine, however is not
officially recognized as a mineral (see other non-minerals such as apophyllite,
tourmaline, mica, serpentine, chlorite and apatite).

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is a light near emerald green to the more common pale yellowish green;
also found colorless, greenish brown to black.
 Luster is vitreous.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is orthorhombic; 2/m 2/m 2/m.
 Crystal Habits include flatten tabular to box shaped crystals, but good crystals
are rare. More commonly found as grains in alluvial gravels and as granular
xenoliths in magnesium rich volcanic rock. Also massive. Twinning is rare, but
has produced star shaped trillings.
 Cleavage is poor in two directions at 90 degrees, is more distinct in fayalite.
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 6.5 - 7.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 3.2 for forsterite - 4.3 for fayalite (above
average for non-metallic minerals).
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: Index of refraction is 1.64 - 1.70 and has double
refraction.
 Associated Minerals are diopside, spinel, plagioclase feldspars, chromite,
hornblende, serpentine, iron-nickel meteorites and augite.

THE MINERAL EUCLASE

 Chemistry: BeAlSiO4OH, Beryllium Aluminum Silicate Hydroxide.

 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Nesosilicates
 Uses: Gemstone and as mineral specimens.
 Specimens
 Euclase is not a well known gemstone, but is more well known by mineral
collectors. It forms well formed crystals that occasionally have enough clarity to
be cut as gems. The sapphire blue and blue green colors of euclase are the typical
colors of the gemstones.

 The crystals of euclase are commonly prismatic with slanted termination faces.
Unlike other monoclinic minerals whose crystals will commonly look like higher
symmetry crystals, euclase's crystals are distinctly monoclinic due to the slanted
termination. Nice crystals of euclase are much sought after by collectors.

 Euclase is found in granitic pegmatites with other gem minerals such as topaz and
beryl. It is easily identified by its crystal form which can only be confused with
barite or celestite but is the wrong environment for these sulfate minerals. Topaz
has a completely different cleavage (basal) than euclase (prismatic). Transparent
albite is softer. Euclase weathered out of source rock and transported down
stream can end up being found in placer deposits with gold.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color includes colorless, blue-green, blue, yellow, light green and rarely purple.
 Luster is vitreous.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is monoclinic; 2/m
 Crystal Habits include stubby prismatic crystals with non-symmetrical slanted
terminations.
 Cleavage is perfect in one direction (prismatic), poor in two other directions.
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 7.5
 Specific Gravity is 3.09 - 3.11 (slightly above average)
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: Almost always striated lengthwise.
 Associated Minerals include micas, quartz, topaz, beryl, gold, pericline and
some feldspars.
 Notable Occurrences include Ouro Preto and other areas within Minas Gerias,
Brazil; Kenya; Tanzania; Ural Mountains, Russia; Germany and with emeralds in
the famous mines of Columbia.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, good cleavage, striations, hardness and
color.

Sorosilicate (double tetrahedrons)

 Sorosilicates have two silicate tetrahedrons that are linked by one oxygen ion and
thus the basic chemical unit is the anion group (Si2O7) with a negative six charge
(-6). This structure forms an unusual hourglass-like shape and it may be due to
this oddball structure that this subclass is the smallest of the silicate subclasses. It
includes minerals that may also contain normal silicate tetrahedrons as well as the
double tetrahedrons. The more complex members of this group, such as Epidote,
contain chains of aluminum oxide tetrahedrons being held together by the
individual silicate tetrahedrons and double tetrahedrons. Most members of this
group are rare, but epidote is widespread in many metamorphic environments.

THE MINERAL LEUCITE

 Chemistry: KAlSi2O6, Potassium Aluminum Silicate

 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Tektosilicates
 Group: Feldspathoids
 Uses: mineral specimen and as a minor source of potassium and aluminum.
 Specimens
 Leucite is a popular and interesting mineral. Its name comes from the greek word
for "white" in allusion to its typical color. At high temperatures, leucite is
isometric and will form the isometric trapezohedron crystal form. Interestingly, as
leucite cools, the isometric structure becomes unstable and transforms into a
tetragonal structure without altering the outward shape. Although the mineral is
actually tetragonal, the outward shape is pseudo-isometric and thus the crystal
form is actually pseudo-trapezohedral.
 Leucite is one of the few minerals that forms the unique trapezohedron. The
trapezohedron has 24 deltoid shaped faces, where each face occupies one third of
the position of a single octahedron's face. The minerals of the garnet group and
the mineral analcime are the only common minerals that will also form the
trapezohedron.

 Distinguishing leucite from the garnets and analcime is relatively easy in some
cases. The garnets are much harder and usually deeply colored. Leucite has a
much lower density and usually has a duller luster than analcime. Also leucite is
typically embedded in host rock where as analcime, when displaying good
crystals and not massive or granular, is loose or attacted to other minerals in
volcanic cavities.

 Leucite, KAlSi2O6 is actually distantly related to analcime, NaAlSi2O6-H2O.

Leucite is a member of the feldspathoid group of minerals. Analcime, although
usually considered a zeolite, is sometimes placed in the feldspathoid group since
its chemistry and occassional occurrences are similar.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is clear, white or gray, with yellowish and reddish tints possible.
 Luster is vitreous or greasy to dull.
 Transparency: crystals are transparent, translucent to commonly opaque.
 Crystal System is isometric; 4/m bar 3 2/m at temperatures above 605 degrees C,
and tetragonal; either 4 2 2 or 4/m, below 605 degrees C.
 Crystal Habits include the characteristic trapezohedron (actually pseudo-
trapezohedron). Also granular and massive.
 Cleavage is absent.
 Fracture is conchoidal
 Hardness is 5.5 - 6.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 2.4 - 2.5 (slightly below average)
 Streak is white.
 Associated Minerals include olivine, labradorite, augite, biotite, nepheline and
other feldspathoids.
 Other Characteristics: surface is usually pitted, dull or has a weathered look.
 Notable Occurrences include Mt. Vesuvius, Italy; Magnet Cove, Arkansas,
Leucite Hills, Wyoming and Litchfield, Maine, USA; Brazil and Hastings Co,
Ontario.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, density, low hardness, luster and
associations.

THE MINERAL DANBURITE

 Chemistry: CaB 2 Si 2 O 8 , Calcium boron silicate

 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Sorosilicates
 Uses: mineral specimen
 Specimens
 Danburite is not a well-known mineral but is growing in popularity. With crystals
similar to topaz, danburite offers a unique opportunity for a collector who likes
perfectly transparent crystal clusters. People who admire clear quartz will like the
different look of danburite. Its diamond-shaped cross-section and wedge like
termination is a contrast to quartz's hexagonal prisms and pyramidal terminations.
Danburite's original locality is now buried under the city of Danbury,
Connecticut.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is almost always clear or white, but also can be shades of yellow, pink and
brown.
 Luster is vitreous.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is orthorhombic; 2/m 2/m 2/m
 Crystal Habits include generally prismatic crystals with a diamond-shaped cross-
section. The termination is a steeply slanted dome producing a wedge look.
Crystals can be rather thin to almost acicular or up to a foot long and several
inches across.
 Cleavage is poor in one direction, basal.
 Fracture is uneven to conchoidal.
 Hardness is 7 - 7.5
 Specific Gravity is approximately 3.0 (average)
 Streak is white or colorless.
 Associated Minerals are quartz, feldspars, cassiterite, dolomite, corundum
variety ruby, and fluorite.
 Notable Occurrences include Danbury, Connecticut and Russell, New York,
USA; Charcas, San Luis Potosi, Mexico; Kyushu Is., Japan; Mogok, Burma and
Uri, Switzerland.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, poor cleavage, hardness and associations.

Cyclosilicate (rings)

 These silicates form chains such as in the inosilicates except that the chains link
back around on themselves to form rings. The silicon to oxygen ratio is generally
the same as the inosilicates, (1:3). The rings can be made of the minimum three
tetrahedrons forming triangular rings (such as in benitoite). Four tetrahedrons can
form a rough square shape (such as in axinite). Six tetrahedons form hexagonal
shapes (such as in beryl, cordierite and the tourmalines). There are even eight
membered rings and more complicated ring structures. The symmetry of the rings
usually translates directly to the symmetry of these minerals; at least in the less
complex cyclosilicates. Benitoite's ring is a triangle and the symmetry is trigonal
 or three-fold. Beryl's rings form hexagons and its symmetry is hexagonal or six-
fold. The Tourmalines' six membered rings have alternating tetrahedrons pointing
up then down producing a trigonal as opposed to an hexagonal symmetry.
Axinite's almost total lack of symmetry is due to the complex arrangement of its
square rings, triangle shaped borate anions (BO3) and the position of OH groups.
Cordierite is pseudo-hexagonal and is analogous to beryl's structure except that
aluminums substitute for the silicons in two of the six tetrahedrons. There are
several gemstone minerals represented in this group, a testament to the general
high hardness, luster and durability. Below are the more common members of the
cyclosilicates. See the Cyclosilicates' page for a more complete list.

THE MINERAL AXINITE

 Chemistry: Ca2(Mn, Fe, Mg)Al2(BO3OH)(SiO3)4, Calcium Manganese Iron

Magnesium Aluminum Borosilicate Hydroxide
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Cyclosilicates
 Uses: Only as a mineral specimen
 Specimens
 Axinite is an interesting mineral and produces unique flattened spatula shaped
crystals that fanciers of well formed crystals love to collect. It is a triclinic
mineral which means that it has no symmetry planes or axes of rotation. It does
possess a center of symmetry. A center of symmetry, or center, is a symmetry
operation that takes a face on one side of a crystal and inverts in through the
center of the crystal to the other side. The faces that are inverted are completely
flipped both left to right and up to down. With this being the only symmetry
operation, faces on axinite crystals are seemingly scattered everywhere and
anywhere (except for their inverted partners on the other side of the crystal).
 Ferro-axinite, iron rich, lilac brown to black, SG=3.31
 Magnesio-axinite, magnesium rich, pale blue to gray, SG=3.18
 Manganaxinite, manganese rich, yellow-orange, SG=3.32
 Tinzenite, iron & manganese intermediate, yellow, SG=3.37

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is commonly a lilac brown but also yellow, yellow-orange, gray, pale blue
and even black.
 Luster is vitreous.
 Transparency crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is triclinic; bar 1
 Crystal Habits include flattened wedge shaped crystals, often with a spatula or
knife-like shaped edge. Also as granular and as parallel bladed aggregates.
 Cleavage is good in one direction.
 Fracture is conchoidal.
 Hardness is 6 - 7.5
 Specific Gravity is approximately 3.0 - 3.4 (slightly above average for
transparent minerals)
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: crystals are heavily striated on some faces and
manganese rich axinites have been known to be fluorescent red.
 Associated Minerals are diopside, andradite, quartz, calcite, epidote, scheelite
and prehnite.
 Notable Occurrences include Madera Co., California and Franklin, New Jersey,
USA; Baja California, Mexico; Bahia, Brazil; Switzerland; Obira, Japan;
Cornwall, England and France.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, hardness, color and striations.

THE MINERAL BARATOVITE

 Chemistry: KLi3Ca7(Ti, Zr)2(SiO3)12F2, Potassium Lithium Calcium

Titanium Zirconium Silicate Fluoride.
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: cyclosilicates
 Uses: only as a mineral specimen
 Specimens
 Baratovite is a very rare silicate mineral. It is extremely new on the mineral scene
since it was only described in the last twenty five years. Baratovite is a
cyclosilicate which means that the structure is composed of silicate tetrahedrons
linked together so that they form isolated rings. Baratovite is one of the rare
minerals that are coming out of the former USSR and finding their way onto the
mineral markets. Baratovite has the "look" of muscovite but is easily
distinguished by its brilliant blue fluorescence under ultra-violet light.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is white with pinkish tints.
 Luster is pearly.
 Transparency crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is monoclinic (pseudo-hexagonal); 2/m
 Crystal Habits include flattened pseudohexagonal crystals also massive and
lamellar.
 Cleavage: perfect in one direction.
 Fracture: uneven
 Hardness is 3.5
 Specific Gravity is approximately 2.9 (average)
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: fluoresces brilliant blue under UV light.
 Associated Minerals include aegerine, misterite and other rare silicates.
 Notable Occurrences include Dara-Pioz, Tien-Shan Mountains, Tadzhikistan.
 Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, fluorescence, cleavage, associations and
locality.

Phyllosilicate (sheets)

 In this subclass, rings of tetrahedrons are linked by shared oxygens to other rings
in a two dimensional plane that produces a sheet-like structure. The silicon to
oxygen ratio is generally 1:2.5 (or 2:5) because only one oxygen is exclusively
bonded to the silicon and the other three are half shared (1.5) to other silicons.
The symmetry of the members of this group is controlled chiefly by the symmetry
of the rings but is usually altered to a lower symmetry by other ions and other
layers. The typical crystal habit of this subclass is therefore flat, platy, book-like
and display good basal cleavage. Typically, the sheets are then connected to each
other by layers of cations. These cation layers are weakly bonded and often have
water molecules and other neutral atoms or molecules trapped between the sheets.
This explains why this subclass produces very soft minerals such as talc, which is
used in talcum powder. Some members of this subclass have the sheets rolled into
tubes that produce fibers as in asbestos serpentine.

THE MINERAL APOPHYLLITE

 Chemistry: (K,Na)Ca4Si8O20(F,OH) - 8H2O, Hydrated Potassium Calcium

Sodium Silicate Fluoride Hydroxide.
 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Phyllosilicates
 Group: Apophyllite
 Uses: Only as mineral specimens.
 Physical Properties
 Specimens
 Apophyllite, whose name roughly means "to leaf apart" in Greek, is a mineral
classic. It was given its name because crystals tend to peel or flake apart when
they are heated due to the loss of water molecules. Although not that well-known
by the general public, apophyllite is quite popular among mineral collectors. It is
probably the first exotic mineral that a young collector will own after filling up on
specimens of calcite, quartz, pyrite, galena, mica, fluorite, gypsum, apatite,
etc, etc. After these common minerals, apophyllite seems like a real rarity and it
offers so much to the collector. It has beauty, pastel colors, a bright luster,
interesting well formed habits, unusual associations with other exotic minerals
and recently large amounts of quality specimens have become available at
amazingly low prices from just a decade ago

THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

 Color is clear, white, green, yellow, pink, violet or rarely brown.
 Luster is vitreous to pearly on cleavage surfaces.
 Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System is tetragonal; 4/m 2/m 2/m; natroapophyllite is orthorhombic,
2/m 2/m 2/m.
 Crystal Habits include four sided prisms (with a square cross-section) truncated
with either a steep four sided pyramid or a pinacoid termination or both. If the
pyramids are missing, the crystals can look cubic. Rarely are the prisms missing,
but if they are, crystals could appear octahedral because of the four sided
pyramids. Cleavage is perfect in one direction (basal).
 Fracture is uneven.
 Hardness is 4.5 - 5.
 Specific Gravity is approximately 2.3 - 2.4 (lighter than most translucent
minerals).
 Streak is white.
 Other Characteristics: Prism faces are striated lengthwise, some specimens are
fluorescent and crystals will flake when heated.
 Associated Minerals are prehnite, quartz, heulandite, stilbite, natrolite,
analcime, datolite, babingtonite, cavansite, calcite, idocrase, wollastonite,
kinoite, gyrolite and many other zeolites.

THE MINERAL CAVANSITE

 Chemistry: Ca(VO)Si4O10(H2O)4, Hydrated Calcium Vanadium Silicate.

 Class: Silicates
 Subclass: Phyllosilicates
 Uses: mineral specimens.
 Specimens
 Cavansite is a beautiful and rare mineral. It was only discovered in the last 30
years and is found in only a few locallities. By far the best crystals come from the
famous zeolite quarries in Poona, India. Crystal aggregates consist of spherical
rosettes with jutting pointed crystals. The deep blue color of even the smallest
cavansite crystals is truly amazing. A beautiful blue cavansite rosette perched on
top of the muted colors of the typical zeolites makes a dramatic crystal
association. Cavansite's rarity and beauty explain its recent popularity.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
 Color is greenish-blue to ocean blue.
 Luster vitreous to pearly.
 Transparency transparent to translucent.
 Crystal System: Orthorhombic
 Crystal Habits radiating acicular crystals forming spherical crystal clusters.
 Cleavage perfect in one direction.
 Fracture conchoidal.
 Hardness 3 - 4
 Specific Gravity is approximately 2.33
 Streak is blue.
 Associated Minerals include zeolites such as stilbite and heulandite as well as
calcite, apophyllite , babingtoniteand quartz.
 Other Characteristics: larger crystals show an unusual internal reflection.
 Notable Occurrence is Poona, India and Columbia Co. and Malheur Co.,
Oregon, USA.
 Best Field Indicators are color, associations, locality and crystal habit.

Tectosilicate (frameworks)

 This subclass is often called the "Framework Silicates" because its structure is
composed of interconnected tetrahedrons going outward in all directions forming
an intricate framework analogous to the framework of a large building. In this
subclass all the oxygens are shared with other tetrahedrons giving a silicon to
oxygen ratio of 1:2. In the near pure state of only silicon and oxygen the mineral
is quartz (SiO2). But the tectosilicates are not that simple. It turns out that the
aluminum ion can easily substitute for the silicon ion in the tetrahedrons up to
50%. In other subclasses this substitution occurs to a more limited extent but in
the tectosilicates it is a major basis of the varying structures. While the
tetrahedron is nearly the same with an aluminum at its center, the charge is now a
negative five (-5) instead of the normal negative four (-4). Since the charge in a
crystal must be balanced, additional cations are needed in the structure and this is
the main reason for the great variations within this subclass. Below are the more
common members of the tectosilicate subclass. See the tectosilicates' page for a
more complete list.

THE FELDSPAR GROUP

 The feldspar group is a fairly large group with nearly 20 members recognized, but
only nine are well known and common. Those few, however, make up the greatest
percentage of minerals found in the Earth's crust. The following are some of the
more common feldspar minerals:

The plagioclase feldspars:

 Albite, (Sodium aluminum silicate)
 Oligoclase, (Sodium calcium aluminum silicate)
 Andesine, (Sodium calcium aluminum silicate)
 Labradorite, (Calcium sodium aluminum silicate)
 Bytownite, (Calcium sodium aluminum silicate)
 Anorthite, (Calcium aluminum silicate)

The K-feldspars or alkali felspars:

 Microcline, (Potassium aluminum silicate)
 Sanidine, (Potassium sodium aluminum silicate)
 Orthoclase, (Potassium aluminum silicate)

 The feldspars are a group of minerals that have similar characteristics due to a
similar structure. All feldspars have low symmetry, being only monoclinic, 2/m,
to triclinic, bar 1. They tend to twin easily and one crystal can even be multiply
twinned on the same plane, producing parallel layers of twinned crystals. They are
slightly hard at around 6, and have an average density at 2.55 to 2.76. They have a
rather dull to rarely vitreous luster. Crystals tend to be blocky. Some feldspars
may be triboluminescent. They have two directions of cleavage at nearly right
angles. Feldspars also tend to crystallize in igneous enviroments, but are also
present in many metamorphic rocks.

 The general formula, for the common feldspars, is XAl(1-2) Si(3-2) O8 . The X in
the formula can be sodium, Na and/or potassium, K and/or calcium, Ca. When the
cation in the X position has a positive one (+1) charge such as with sodium or
potassium, then the formula contains one aluminum and three silicons ions. If the
formula contains the positive two (+2) cation calcium, then the formula will
contain two aluminums and only two silicon ions. This substitution keeps the
formula balanced, because aluminum has a charge of positive three (+3) and
silicon has a charge of positive four (+4). Basically, the more calcium in the
crystal, the more aluminum that will be needed to balance the charge.

 The silicons and aluminums occupy the centers of interlinked tetrahedrons of

SiO4 and AlO4. These tetrahedrons connect at each corner to other tetrahedrons
forming an intricate, three dimensional, negatively charged framework. The
cations that represent the X in the formula sit within the voids in this structure.

THE FELDSPATHOID GROUP

 The feldspathoids are not a typical mineral group like other mineral groups that
are related by structure and chemistry. Their relation to each other is due
primarily to their relationship to the feldspar group of minerals. Feldspathoids
are low silica igneous minerals that would have formed feldspars if only more
silica (SiO2) were present in the original magma. The aluminum to silicon ratio is
nearly 1:1 in most of the feldspathoids but is closer to 1:3 in most of the feldspars.
As would be predicted, feldspathoids are not found in igneous rocks that contain
primary quartz.

 Similar to the zeolites, the feldspathoids have large openings in the crystal
structure. These openings are mostly separated from each other and do not lend
themselves to the movement of ions and molecules that is allowed in the zeolite's
structure. The openings do allow the structure to contain large ions like chlorine,
carbonate and sulfate. The lower density common to the minerals of this group is
evidence of the openess of their structure.
  The sodalite group is a group within a group. It is composed of minerals with a
similar isometric structure and related chemistry. It is named for its most common
member, sodalite.

The following are some of the more common feldspathoid minerals:

 Cancrinite (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate Carbonate)
 Leucite (Potasium Aluminum Silicate)
 Nepheline (Sodium Potasium Aluminum Silicate)
 Sodalite Group:
 Hauyne (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate Sulfate)
 Lazurite (Sodium Calcium Aluminum Silicate (Sulfate Sulfide Chloride))
 Nosean (Sodium Aluminum Silicate Sulfate)
 Sodalite (Sodium Aluminum Silicate Chloride)